What Is Viscose and How Is It Made?

Viscose is a semi-synthetic fabric commonly used as a substitute for silk. It was developed in the late 19th century after a silkworm blight made natural silk—which was already very expensive—almost completely unaffordable. It became hugely popular because of the way it draped on the body.

Viscose is not quite synthetic, as it's made from cellulose (as all early plastics were), but it is not quite natural either, due to the extensive chemical transformations it is put through.

History

The first artificial silk was Chardonnett silk, made with celluloid and invented by Hilaire de Chardonnet. This fabric had just one problem: it was highly flammable. In "Plastic: The Making of a Synthetic Century," Stephen Fenichell describes how, in about 1891, “a fashionable young lady’s ball gown, accidentally touched by her escort’s cigar, disappeared in a puff of smoke on the ballroom floor." It was taken off the market.

Then, in 1892, viscose was invented by Charles Cross and Edward Bevan. They treated cellulose with caustic soda and carbon bisulfite, which yielded a thick honey-like thick liquid with high viscosity that they imaginatively named viscose. They turned it into a solid plastic to compete with the flammable celluloid, but didn't have much luck making a fiber out of it.

In 1899, Charles Topham bought the rights to make fiber from viscose, but was also having trouble making it strong enough. Inspired by a spinning bicycle wheel, he developed the “Topham Box,” which spun at 3,000 RPM and flung out perfect viscose fibers. Within months, he was cranking out 12,000 pounds a day, and he soon licensed it to manufacturers around the world.

How It's Made

Traditionally, cellulose can be derived from many different sources, from wood fiber to bamboo to seaweed. It is first broken down with caustic soda, also known as lye or sodium hydroxide. Then, it is treated with carbon disulfide and diluted with more caustic soda, which results in the viscous syrup that was the source of its name. This syrup is then pumped through tiny holes of the spinning shower into a bath of diluted sulfuric acid, sodium sulfate, and zinc sulfate, where it congeals into fibers of almost pure cellulose.

There is not much difference between the various sources of cellulose. Between 2007 and 2010, green websites (including Treehugger), extolled the virtues of bamboo fabrics, claiming it was "green" because bamboo is such a fast-growing plant. However, in 2010, the Federal Trade Commission put an end to this, writing:

The soft textiles you see labeled ‘bamboo’ don’t contain any part of the bamboo plant. They are made from bamboo that has been processed into rayon using toxic chemicals. When bamboo is processed into rayon, no trace of the original plant is left.

In 2007, the New York Times investigated Lululemon's claims about the virtues of adding seaweed to its fabric. The lab tests could not find a trace of seaweed in the material. In the end, cellulose is cellulose, and it all ends up as indistinguishable viscose.

Properties of Viscose

The main practical difference between viscose and fully synthetic materials like polyester is that viscose is water-absorbing and breathable, so it can keep you feeling cooler on hot days. That makes it a decent choice for summer.

Viscose Versus Rayon

There's no difference between viscose and rayon; viscose is a type of rayon, but there can different kinds of rayon, such as modal and lyocell. In its early days, no one liked the name viscose, and calling it artificial silk made it sound, well, artificial. So, in 1926, the U.S.-based National Retail Dry Goods Council held a nationwide contest to come up with a better name. The losers included Glista and Klis (silk spelled backwards—get it?). The winner was rayon, a play on the French word rayonner, meaning “to shine through”—a reference to the fabric's silk-like luster.

In 1930, Saks Fifth Avenue advertised the material: “Rayon! It’s like the time we live in! Gay, colorful, luminous. It’s so pliable to work with and so luxurious in appearance.”

Viscose Versus Cotton

How does viscose compare to cotton? Both are breathable materials, but the former is semi-synthetic, while the latter is all natural. Both use cellulose, though cotton's source of cellulose grows within five to six months, and viscose's uses trees that may take years to mature. Cotton is a stronger fiber than viscose that increases in strength when wet, which is why it's used frequently for cleaning and absorption, particularly in medicine. Viscose usually needs to be dry-cleaned, which is more chemically intensive than what cotton needs, which is just a standard wash. So there are a number of good reasons why cotton is the greener choice.

Environmental Impact

Viscose is completely biodegradable. Unlike polyester, it is not made from petrochemicals, and it will not add to the plastic load in the ocean. It's estimated that viscose will biodegrade fully within six weeks, which is faster than cotton's projected 11 weeks. Modal rayon, made from pulped beech trees, takes longer, around 8 months to decompose.

The biggest issue with the making of viscose is carbon disulfide, a toxic chemical compound. Inhaling small doses can cause irritability and headaches; higher doses and more prolonged exposure, experienced by workers in viscose plants, can cause bigger problems, including "nightmares, sleep disturbance, irritability, and memory disturbance," as well as "peripheral neuropathy, parkinsonism, and retinopathy," according to Tracy J. Eicher in Clinical Neurotoxicology.

There are additional concerns surrounding the sourcing of cellulose to make fabrics like viscose. An estimated 200 million trees are cut down every year to make textiles, and sometimes this wood comes from ancient or endangered forests, harming valuable and irreplaceable ecosystems. Organizations like CanopyStyle are working to make supply chains more transparent by asking fashion brands to commit to finding better, renewable sources for their fabrics. Possibilities include agricultural residues like leftover wheat straw or making viscose from old cotton products.

Greener Alternatives

In 1972, an American company developed a process that eliminated the carbon disulfide, directly dissolving the cellulose in the less toxic and more environmentally benign N-methylmorpholine N-oxide (NMMO), in what is called the Lyocell process. The company went bust before bringing the product to market, but the process was picked up in the 1980s by Courtaulds Fibres, who called it Tencel (U.S. brand name). The end result of the Lyocell process is nearly identical to viscose. In the end, it's all cellulose. Because it is made without carbon disulfide, however, it is a greener alternative.

EcoVero is a new material produced by Lenzing that uses sustainable wood from controlled sources that are overseen by the Forest Stewardship Council or the Program for Endorsement of Forest Certification Schemes in Europe. Good on You writes, "More than 60% of the trees used to produce the fibre come from Austria and Bavaria to ensure lower emissions. Nearly all the chemicals used during the production of EcoVero are also recovered and reused, causing 50% less emissions and taking up half as much energy and water."

Sometimes upcycled viscose is used to make new clothes by companies like the R Collective. It sells a dress made from "rescued" and blended viscose (among many other items).